The Diverse Nature of Counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Diverse Nature of Counseling - Essay Example Psychoanalytic therapy was the first to develop in the area of counseling. It was created by an Austrian doctor by the name of Sigmund Freud. He wrote many aspects of the personality such as the id, ego, and superego. He also came up with the idea of reaction mechanisms in response to anxiety as well as thoughts of the consciousness and unconsciousness. In regards to therapy, the goal of therapy in psychotherapy is to bring the unconscious into the conscious realm through dream interpretation and talking therapy. In addition, it focuses on the strengthening of the ego so that the person becomes more integrated with reality. This was the foundation for all of the other therapies in psychology. The next major form of therapy to develop in counseling was Alderian therapy. It was started by Alfred Adler, who was a student of Freud’s, so there is some psychoanalytical influence on this theory. His basis for this therapy was that people are strongly influenced by the events of the p ast in which they either witnessed or experienced. Unlike in psychoanalysis which is purely deterministic, Alderian therapy acknowledges that both biological and environmental factors can impact a person. Many times, Alderian therapy is used in family and child therapy due to the emphasis on birth order and family constellations. Many times the goal in therapy is helping the person overcome inferiority and modifying faulty lifestyles and motivation. (Rule, & Bishop, 2006). Existential therapy is one of the theories which is more derived from philosophy rather than the behavioral sciences. It was created and supported by Victor Frankl and Rollo May. They reject the deterministic behavior of psychoanalysis in favor of the idea that we have the freedom to choose who and what we want to be. It is in this attempt to find oneself in which the therapy is developed. Logotherapy, the search for meaning, was created using this philosophy on counseling. The goal in counseling is helping the in dividual discover themselves and allowing them to redefine themselves through personal expression and genuineness expressed by the therapist (Yalom, 1980). Person-centered therapy was started by Carol Rogers. Again, rather than the purely biological nature of psychoanalysis, person centered therapy relies on concepts from the humanistic psychology. The main aspects of person centered therapy, as a therapist, are to have unconditional positive regard for a person, congruence, and be able to be empathetic towards the individual. The idea behind person centered therapy is that growth in the client is attained by the genuineness of the client-therapist relationship. This was unlike many of the prior therapy philosophies in that the main goal of therapy is based on the client-therapist relationship (Tudor, & Worrall, 2006). Gestalt therapy is the based on the here and now. According to Fritz Pearls, the goal in helping the client overcome neuroticism is by making them experience their pa st emotions and experiences as if they are a current feeling. Some of the principles of Gestalt therapy included

Financial project report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8500 words

Financial project report - Essay Example Secondary Research........................................................................................... 27 5.4. Strengths and Limitations. 31 6. Ethical Considerations........ 32 7. Timetable and any special resources required.... 32 8. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 34 9. Recommendations.................................................................................................... 34 10. References. 35 11. Appendices................................................................................................................. 39 Appendix I............................................................................................................. 39 Appendix II........................................................................................................... 41 Appendix III........................................................................................................... 42 1. How does the financial crisis affect the students 2. Background of the study America is currently in the midst of a tremendous economic crisis, with inflation reaching unprecedented and unanticipated levels. This has resulted in a tremendous rise in the cost of living which has made living a challenge to the general public and to the student population in particular as they have limited resources at their disposal. The students, those who are pursuing higher education in colleges and universities outside their home town in particular have to bear the costs of college fees, accommodation, living expenses and other courseware...In such a situation the rise in cost of essential items such as gasoline, electricity negatively impacts the quality of their studies. For the greater majority of students, borrowing money from banks has become a necessity to fund for their college and university education. On average, students in the US now graduate with at least $21,000 in debt and in some extreme circumstances students graduate with $100,000 in debt or more. Tuition fees at private colleges and universities have gone up tremendously - far ahead of inflation. Parents are losing jobs or their salaries are reduced as a result of the economic crisis. Thus the amount that parents can contribute towards their children's education is decreasing. This means that a greater number of students are dependent on loans for their college and university education. Every student who is currently attending or applying to college currently is horrified by what is going on in the financial markets. Things such as bonds for student loans are affected as a result. There will be a direct impact on student borrowings that will most likely be affected by the current financial crisis.

Is Psychology a Science? Theories and Research Methods

Is Psychology a Science? Theories and Research Methods Is psychology a science? Discuss with reference to scientific method and bias in psychological research. Psychology can be viewed in a variety of ways as accords to the many schools of thought that pertain to psychology. From its origins in philosophy, psychology has undergone a variety of classifications. The major scientific paradigms born from philosophical enquiry were the school of empiricism and the school of rationality. Essentially, these two approaches dictated the direction that psychology must take if it was to be regarded as scientific. One of the first schools of thought in psychology was heavily concerned with its reputation as a scientifically validity enquiry. This was to be known as the behavioural approach to psychology or the behavioural perspective. The behavioural perspective was devised by Watson who used observation to determine evidence. As a consequence of according to the governing principles of objective scientific research, Watson rejected the notion of any internal psychological mechanisms as he believed that this could not be quantifiably measured (Miell et al, 2002). All Watson was interested in was the observable external phenomena, which meant the analysis of behaviour. Consequently, Watson placed an emphasis on psychology as primarily a learning phenomenon. A fundamental distinction that occurs within behaviourism is within this role of learning. Essentially, two approaches formed called classical and operant conditioning. Research into classical conditioning was defined by physiologist Pavlov who was also concerned with scientific analysis. Pavlov observed that in relation to certain stimuli dog’s behaviour could be conditioned through association (Miell et al, 2002). Using a dogs’ biological respons e to hunger, Pavlov was ble to scientifically demonstrate that there was a basic relationship between an observable stimulus and the animals learned response. Whilst in operant conditioning, Skinner was able to ascertain that there was a pre-conceived notion in the environment that led the animal to learn through a process of trial and error, which led to observable schedules of behaviour (Skinner, 1946/1990). In both classical and operant conditioning we can see that learning is defined as a scientifically observable and so provable modification of behaviour caused by association and manipulation of the environment. However, this approach clearly lacks greater insight into the role of the mind, its cognitive processes and also suffers from being based upon animal and not human studies. The cognitive approach addresses the human capacity to categorise, generalise and conceptualise certain phenomena. Primarily concerned with the functioning of the mind itself it engaged in the scientific analysis notions such as memory, perception and categorisation (Miell et al, 2002). Unhappy at the flaws in behavioural psychology, cognitive psychologist Bruner, devised a test to see how we mentally constructed categories. Unlike the objective approach of conditioning, Bruner suggested that this was an engaging intelligent procedure that was performed by way of hypothesis testing stages of acceptance and rejection based upon trial (Bruner et al, 1956). To be valued as scientific, a test involving a variety of shapes were used in a variety of conditions. Some of these conditions shared the same number of shapes, some the same colour of shape, whilst others shared the same number of borders. No two varieties were identical. From the results of this experiment, Bruner was able to sur mise that there were tw forms of cognition that had been present. Successive scanning, which tested one hypothesis at a time and conservative scanning, which sought to eliminate classes of hypotheses (Bruner et al, 1956). Unlike the behavioural approach, we can see from the findings and classifications of these studies that an attempt is being made to understand the intelligent human mind with regards to categorisation. However, categorisation is not accepted by everyone in the field of science and its objective validity does suffer from critical enquiry. For instance, addressing the empiricism versus rationalism argument, many have argued that the categories in the study are innate rather than learned (Chomsky Fodor, 1980). This strengthens the behavioural notion that the conceptual structure of the mind is open to interpretation, and so cannot be considered an entirely scientific approach to psychology. Another school of thought within psychology is that concerned with the social aspect. This is primarily interested in the role that social influence has on our behaviour. For instance, in the findings of a test put forward by Sherif, we can see the extent to which people will use the word of others and the resource of group norms to ascertain a truth about something. This is an important concept with regards to the influence of social norms as we can observe that our psychology is influenced by our conformity to social norms (Sherif, 1936). Similarly, a test devised by Asch revealed that conformity of an individual to a norm was indicative of individual identity (Asch, 1956). Similarly, research by Baron indicated that through a lack of responsibility that an individual felt to correct and deviate from a social norm an account could be made to configure their potential to conformity (Baron et al, 1956). Essentially, these tests revealed that the role of responsibility was based upon conscriptions o social norms, attitudes, beliefs and ideologies. However, these findings suffer from being based upon social norms and cultural constructs such as identities and beliefs and so cannot be considered universal, objective principles that would accord to the main scientific schools such as physics and chemistry. Another key school of thought is psycho-analysis and developmental psychology. Stemmed from Freudian theory, psycho-analysis and developmental psychology is concerned with the development of the subject’s personality in relation to underlying motives and mainly sexually based desires and conflicts (Freud, 1917/1973). Using a notion of base primordial drives, Freud put forward various schemas of development that dictated our personality and variations in our behaviours, such as conforming to social norms. The agents at work within these drives and the accompanying stages of development were commonly referred to as defence mechanisms. Defence mechanisms were put forward as being ways in which the subject could cope with the real and disturbing psychological issues that they had to face throughout life, such as anxiety and confusion. These mechanisms consisted of such concepts as denial, projection and regression and are commonly established psychological phenomena that infor the core rationale of developmental and psycho-dynamic paradigms (Freud, 1917/1973). Although these factors are well established concepts within mainstream psychology, they still depend upon a structural paradigm to be understood. Much criticism has come in the form of humanistic approaches who have suggested that these models of development are dependent upon the objectifying of the subject and that this approach is a convenient theoretical model rather than being scientifically accurate. Another school of thought is one that actually rejects objective science at its core. The phenomenological approach to psychological study is primarily based upon perception and subjectivity. Formed as a way of countering the empirical approach to psychology that had led to the field of cognitive psychology, phenomenological psychology suggested that knowledge was learned entirely from the external environment via lessons that were encapsulated in our experience (Merleau-Ponty, 1964). Detaching from the scientific notion of tabula rasa, which had dominated the opposing stance to the rationality of science, Merleau-Ponty looked at the notion of perception and in particular how it was informed by phenomena, rather than through observation of objects taken from their natural environment. Fundamental to this approach is the notion that everything we experience accords to the phenomena in which it is presented, and so objective science cannot tell us about our psychological experience. Th is approach most ertainly rejects psychology, as well as many other enquiries, as a scientific pursuit. We can see from these schools of thought that to call psychology a pursuit of objective scientific fact is flawed. However, we can also see that there is a strong emphasis in each case placed upon validity. Even the rejection of objectively defined scientific principles shown by the phenomenological approach gives indication that validity and limitation of enquiry are paramount, which is surely the premise of scientific analysis. Bibliography Asch, S, E., (1956) Studies of independence and conformity. Psychology Monologues, 70. Baron, R, S., Vandello, J, A., Brunsman, B. (1996) The Forgotten Variable in Conformity Research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70. Bruner, J, S., Goodnow, J, J., and Austin, G, A., (1956) A Study of Thinking New York: John Wiley and Sons. Chomsky, N., and Fodor, J, A., (1980) Statement of the Paradox, in Piatelli Palmarini, M. (ed.). Freud, S., (1917/1973) Introductory lecture on Psychoanalysis. Harmondsworth; Penguin. Merleau-Ponty (1964) The Primacy of Perception London: Routledge Miell, D., Phoenix, A. and Thomas, K. (2002) Mapping Psychology 1. Milton Keynes, Open University. Sherif, M., (1936) The Psychology of Social Norms. New Yoprk: Harper. Skinner, B, F., (1946/1990) Walden Two London: Collier Macmillan. Cell membrane: Structure and purpose Cell membrane: Structure and purpose BIOPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY ESSAY: CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE Introduction Cell membrane is a biological barrier that separates the interior part of the cell (i.e. the Cytoplasm, nuclei and the other cell organelle) from the outer environment, thus permits cellular individuality and also gives shape to the cell. This membrane is a mixture of lipids, protein and carbohydrates, therefore is a complex structure. The membrane is semi-permeable and thus only allows selective ions and molecules to go through it into the cell or leave the cell. This is achieved by formation of concentration gradient across the membrane, which many biological processes depend upon. The movement of the biological molecules across the membrane is either passive, which happens without the input of cellular energy or active transport that requires the cell to use energy. The cell membrane also helps in maintaining cell potential. Proteins of the cell membrane form the essential component of the biological membrane since they function as pores, channels or transporters. Proteins thus have the capability of selective passage across the lipid bilayer. Some proteins that are embedded in the cell membrane act as molecular signals and therefore carry out communication. They act as receptors and receive signals from other cells or from the external environment and elicit a response in the cell. Some proteins function as markers which aid in identification of unknown cells. The membrane also aids in intercellular interactions. The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane is only a few nanometres thick and is not permeable to most molecules that are soluble in water, and hence acts as a barrier to regulate the transport of ions, proteins and other molecules through the membrane. Since the phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to many ions, it helps in the regulation of salt concentration and pH by regulating the pumping of ions in and out of the cell via proteins called ion channel pumps. The Fluid mosaic model is the most widely accepted biological membrane model that was proposed in the year 1972 by Singer and Nicolson. Floating in the phospholipid bilayer are molecules of protein, which is analogous to icebergs floating in a sea. The model is referred to as fluid because of the lateral motion of the bilayer macromolecules, and is referred to as mosaic because of the different molecular components [1][2][3][4]. Purpose of cell membrane Cell membrane performs the following functions: Membrane Transport of Small Molecules: Transport proteins present in the bilayer can transport polar molecules through the membrane. There are various types of membrane transport proteins: Uniport This simply moves the solute from one side to the other side of the membrane. Cotransport This system moves two solutes simultaneously across the lipid bilayer. They are two types of this transport-symport (solutes are sent in the same direction) and antiport (solutes are passed in opposite directions). These transports are come under the category of passive transport where no energy expenditure is involved. Here the solute moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration gradient. Examples of this include channel proteins, which allow the solute to pass if they are of a specific charge or size. Carrier proteins bind to the solute and help in its movement through the bilayer.[5] There are two main categories of transport of molecules are there in cells: Active transport Passive transport Small molecules like oxygen, ethanol and carbon dioxide pass through the membrane by simple diffusion (passive transport) down a concentration gradient. Transport of macromolecules like proteins, polynucleotides and polysaccharides is done by active transport using ATP, against the concentration gradient. There are two types of active transport : 1) Exocytosis Process by which waste substances are removed from the cell by vesicle formation and expulsion [6]. 2) Endocytosis- The molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge inward, thus forming a vesicle. Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis where the whole cell is engulfed. Pinocytosis is another type when the external fluid is engulfed. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when the material to be transported binds to specific molecules in the membrane. Example: transport of insulin and cholesterol into animal cells [6]. Cell signalling across the membrane Transmembrane signalling occurs through the generation of a number of signals like cyclic nucleotides, calcium, phosphoinositides and diacylglycerol. Specific signals of neurotransmitters hormones and immunoglobulins bind to the specific receptors on the membrane, which are mostly integral membrane proteins. This is the Ca2+-phosphatidylinositol signalling pathway which plays a major role in transmembrane signalling in a large number of different cell types. This pathway leads to the activation of G-proteins. This initiates activation of phospholipase C and the subsequent formation of DAG and IP3 which triggers the generation of repetitive [Ca2+] spikes [7]. Intercellular intractions Gap junctions are structures that allow the small molecules that are up to ~ 1200 Da to be transported from one cells cytoplasm to the other. These structures contain proteins called connexins. Six connexins form a hemiconnexin and two hemiconnexins form a connexon. These connexions in the gap junction form cylindrical bridges through which substances are transported between cells [1][8]. The Fluid mosaic Model: This model is the widely accepted membrane model. The membrane has a biomolecular lipid bilayer layer. There are proteins that are inserted in it or bound to the surface. Integral membrane protein is the proteins that are embedded in the membrane they play a key role as transporters for various molecules that cannot enter through the cell membrane. The integral proteins have an extra-cellular domain and cytoplasmic domain and are separated by a non-polar region that holds it tightly in the membrane. Proteins that are loosely bound to the to the outer membrane are called the peripheral proteins. Many of the proteins that are present and almost all the glycolipids have an externally oligosaccharides chains that are exposed outside the membrane [1][9]. The membrane fluidity very much depends on the lipids concentration in the membrane. The hydrophobic chains of the fatty acids are much aligned therefore giving it a stiff structure. The transition(Tm) is the temperature at which the transition takes place from ordered to disordered state, this is the change that happens in the hydrophobic side chain. Cholesterol affects the fluidity of the membrane. It increases fluidity below Tm and decreases fluidity above Tm. Modifications to the fluid mosaic model state that the lipids and proteins in the membrane are not randomly distributed. Randomness occurs when interaction energy of these molecules are close to their thermal energies. Since interaction energies cannot be in a narrow range due to large number of interactions, there is very less chance for randomness to occur. Hence the model was found to be more mosaic than fluid [10]. The modified view of membrane model is shown in figure 7[10]. Specialised structures in the membrane: There are some special features in the membrane like lipid rafts, caveolae, tight junction, desmososmes, adherens junctions and microvilli. These are found in the recent years of research. Lipids Raft is the area in the membrane that has relatively higher concentration of cholesterol, sphingo-lipids and some proteins, than the other parts of the membrane. It plays a major role in cell signal transduction. This is under research that if we increase the amount of this and clustering them closely may increase the overall efficiency of the cell. Caveolae are special types of lipid rafts. Many of them have protein called caveolin-1 that is involved in the process. They were observed under electron microscope and were found to be flask-shaped. Proteins that are detected in this also play a role in signal transduction, example is insulin. Proteins found in this also play in role in folate receptor. This field is a growing interest for research. Tight Junctions are present on the surface of the membrane and their major function is to prevent diffusion of macromolecules between cells. They are present below the apical surface of the epithelial cells. They are made up of various proteins including occludin, various claudins and junctional adhesion molecules [1]. Desmosomes also called macula adherens are the specialised cell structures for cell to cell adhesion. Their function is to resist shearing force. They are mostly found in simple and stratified squamous epithelium [11]. Adherens junctions are the proteins that usually occur at cell- cell junction .They are made up of proteins like cadherins, ÃŽÂ ²-catenin, ÃŽÂ ±-catenin and sometimes delta catenin. Their function is to provide strong adhesion between adjacent cells. They hold the cardiac muscle cells firmly together as the heart beats and do not allow it to collapse [12]. Microvilli are very small finger like structures found on the cell membrane. They are mainly found on the epithelial cells, they increase the surface area of the cells therefore increasing the absorptive capacity of the cells. Actin filament extends from the end of these microvilli [13]. Components of cell membrane Cell membrane is a complex structure and is composed of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Different cell membranes have different compositions. Lipids Phospholipids: There are two major class of phospholipids out of which in the cell membrane the phosphoglycerides are the most commonly found ones. Phospholglycerides are esters that are made up of two fatty acids, phosphoric acid and a trifunctional alcohol. Phosphoglycerides with sphingomyelin have Sphingosine backbone instead of glycerol. They play a role in signal transduction. They are prominent in myelin sheaths [1]. Glycosphingolipids: These are sugar containing lipids that are present in the membrane. They have a backbone made of ceramides. These are amphipathic molecules consisting of a ceramide lipid anchor linked to an oligosaccharide chain of variable length and composition [1]. They are required for proper functioning of nervous system. Determining their function will help to understand neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, immune function and diseases of metabolism [14]. STEROLS The most import sterol in the membrane is cholesterol. Proteins in cell membrane Integral membrane proteins: also called intrinsic proteins t has its some part of the protein embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. Most of these proteins have hydrophobic side chains that interact with membrane phospholipids fatty acyl groups. They are called transmembrane proteins if they one or more membrane spanning domains. The transmembrane proteins of the membrane spanning domains are made up of ÃŽÂ ± helices or multiple ÃŽÂ ² strands [8]. These proteins are made up of two hydrophilic and one hydrobhobic region. The hydrophobic region traverses through the bilayer. They are asymmetric in nature. The transmembrane region of many integral membrane proteins is made up of a bundle of hydrophobic ÃŽÂ ±-helices [7]. Their major role is as transporters, and are also structural membrane-anchoring domains. They function by transporting hydrophilic molecules through the membrane. Many Integral Proteins Contain Multiple Transmembrane ÃŽÂ ± lpha Helices [8]. Examples: Insulin receptor, Glycophorin, Rhodopsin, CD36 and GPR30. Peripheral membrane proteins: They are also called as extrinsic proteins; they do not interact with hydrophobic core of the membrane phospholipid bilayer. They are bound to the membrane by interaction with the intergral proteins or are bound to the bilayer outer lipids polar heads groups. They are only present in the cytosolic region of the cell membrane. They play an important role in signal transduction. Some peripheral proteins are localized to the surface of the plasma membrane, these are called exoplasmic proteins. Peripheral enzymes are involved in the synthesis of different membrane components like lipids , cell wall oligosaccharides , or proteins. Membrane peripheral proteins are of five types: Structural proteins, channel proteins, transport or carrier proteins, enzymes and receptor proteins. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are attached to membrane lipids and proteins as short oligosaccharide chains. Proteins attached with sugar molecules are called glycoproteins and lipids attached with sugar molecules are called glycolipids. The carbohydrates form a protective coat called glycocalyx around the cell, which helps in cell recognition. Glycoprotein Glycoproteins are formed by glycosylation of proteins. There are two types: N-glycosylation (sugar links to nitrogen atom of asparagines residue) and O-glycosylation (sugar attaches to hydroxyl group of serine or threonine rsidues). Examples of glycoproteins found in the body are mucins, collagens, transferrins, immunogloulins, etc. Glycolipids Glycolipids are lipids linked to oligosaccharide chains. Examples include glycosphingolipids which contain a hydrophobic ceramide, N-acylsphingosine and saccharides. They are generally located on the outer membrane surface. The composition of the carbohydrate chain depends on the type of the cell and development of the organism.[9] Refrences: [1] Harper [2] http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellMembranes.html [3] http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookCELL2.html [4] http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobooktransp.html [5] http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/cell_membranes.html [6] http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/molecule_transport.html [7] Chay, Lee, Fan, 1995 Appearance of Phase-locked Wenchbach-like Rhythms, Devils Staircase and Universality in Intracellular Calcium Spikes in Non-excitable Cell Models [9] The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Structure of Cell Membranes Cell membranes are viewed as two-dimensional solutions of oriented globular proteins and lipids. S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson [10] http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane3.htm [11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmosome [12] http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/J/Junctions.html [13] Krause J. William (July 2005). KrauseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=cRayoldYrcUCpg=PA37HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=cRayoldYrcUCpg=PA37s Essential Human Histology for Medical Students. Universal-Publishers. pp. 37-. ISBN 9781581124682. Retrieved 25 November 2010. [14] ] Glycosphingolipid functions: insights from engineered mouse models, doi: 10.1098/rstb.2003.1268 Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 2003 358, 879-883 [15] [16] Endosytosis image: http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/cellbiology/index.php?title=2009_Lecture_6 excoystoisis http://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au/units/science/lecture0805.htm figure 1 Gap junction pic: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane3.htm cell membrane pic http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/plasmamembrane.html

Hammurabi :: Essays Papers

Hammurabi Of the many law codes surviving from the ancient Middle East, perhaps the most famous is the Code of Hammurabi, sixth King of the Amorite Dynasty of Old Babylon. Today, the code, engraved in stone takes on a unique form as a piece of art. However, decoded it is clear that this stone was obeyed and served as a sort of political propaganda. The noted stone found in 1901 by French archeologists, now rests in the Paris Louvre where it is preserved from moisture and natural decomposition. The raw material consists of an 8 ft. tall block of black basalt engraved with cuneiform. It clearly intended to be observed in public. The immense size of this rock was a sign of strength and authority and its dark coloration an ominous warning. At the top is a depiction of Hammurabi receiving the code from Shamash the sun god or god of justice. In this picture the two men are the same size, which symbolizes Hammurabi’s power being equal to that of the gods. Below this is a prologue praising Hammurbai’s wisdom and power. To further its legitimacy the law code was in those days regarded as subject for prayer, though the prayers here are chiefly cursings of whoever shall neglect or destroy the law. The content of the code regulates in clear and definite strokes the organization of society and the harsh punishment for crimes. For example, the witness who testifies falsely is to be slain. Indeed, more serious crimes were punishable with death. If a man builds a house poorly, and it falls and kills the owner, the builder is to be slain. If the owner’s son is killed, the builder’s son is slain. The idea of â€Å"eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth† could not be debated.

Indian Cultural Background Essay

I have two cultural background which are Cherokee Indian and African American . Cherokee is really pronounced as â€Å"CHAIR-uh-kee† in our language. Cherokee comes from a Muskogee word meaning ‘speakers of another language’. Cherokee Indians originally called themselves Aniyunwiya â€Å"the principal people,† but today they accept the named Cherokee. But in their language it is pronounced Tsadagi . The Cherokees are original residents of the American southeast region, particularly Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Most Cherokees were forced to move to Oklahoma in the 1800’s along the Trail of Tears. The Cherokee Indians who survived this death still live in Oklahoma today. Some Cherokees escaped the Trail of Tears by hiding in the Appalachian hills or taking shelter with white neighbors. These people live scattered throughout the original Cherokee Indian homelands. Trail of Tears was the Cherokee name for what the Americans called Indian Removal. During the 1800’s, the US government created an â€Å"Indian Territory† in Oklahoma and sent all the eastern Native American tribes to live there. Some tribes agreed to this plan with no problem. Other tribes didn’t like this plan at all , and the American army forced them. The Cherokee tribe was one of the largest eastern tribes, and they didn’t want to leave their homeland. The Cherokees were peaceful with the Americans. So they asked the Supreme Court for help. The judges decided the Cherokee Indians could stay in their homes. But the President, Andrew Jackson, sent the army to march the Cherokees to Oklahoma . They weren’t prepared for the journey, and it was winter time. Thousands of Cherokee Indians died on the Trail of Tears. Many Native Americans from other tribes died too. It was a terrible time in history. There are three federally recognized Cherokee tribes: the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, the United Keetoowah Band in Oklahoma, and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina. Other Cherokee communities in Alabama, Georgia, and other states are considered unofficial by the US government. The Eastern Cherokee people live on a reservation. Indian reservations are lands that belong to Native American tribes and are under their control. The Oklahoma Cherokee people live on trust land, though many Cherokees call it a reservation anyway. The Keetowah Cherokee do not have a land base. Each Cherokee tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, Cherokee Indians are also US citizens and must obey American law. In the past, each Cherokee group was led by one war chief and one peace chief. Cherokee chiefs were chosen by a tribal council. Cherokee war chiefs were male, but the peace chief could be a woman. Today, Cherokee tribal councils and chiefs can be either gender and are popularly elected, like senators and governors. Most Cherokee people speak English today, but 20,000 people also speak the Cherokee Indian language. Cherokee is a complex language with soft sounds. The Cherokee language has an innovative writing system that was invented by the Cherokee scholar Sequoyah. Sequoyah’s writing system is a syllabary. That means one character represents each syllable. The other cultural background is African American .

Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone Essay

In this essay, I would like to evaluate the first helping of the Harry Potter movie-series which was shown worldwide in 2001. Specifically, I am referring to the movie entitled â€Å"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone†. The movie is an adaptation of J. K. Rowling’s novel of the same title, which chronicles the childhood adventures of a kid named Harry Potter. In this essay, I intend to evaluate â€Å"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone† by looking at how successful the film was able to entertain the general public, especially youngsters. Aspects of the First Harry Potter Movie Since the crux of J. K. Rowling’s novel was about magic, the film’s success was heavily dependent on how well Harry Potter is adequately portrayed as a wizard in control of his magical powers. Thus, the effective portrayal of magical powers throughout the film is the criteria which I employ in my evaluation of the movie. In many ways, the film did not disappoint in this aspect. Magic was the defining aspect of Harry Potter – i. e. , from his birth to his journey to the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, he is portrayed as a character that needs to get acquainted with his innate magical powers. Along the same vein, magic was the controlling concern of the characters surrounding Harry. The giftedness of the other characters such as Ron and Hermione, as well as his lone enemy Voldemort was also portrayed well in the movie. Which is why, there are many reasons to think the first Harry Potter movie was successful in entertaining its audience because it was able to zero in on use of magic with much flair and fun. This aspect can be further shown if one compares this particular Harry Potter movie with other films – such as Chronicles of Narnia or Lord of the Rings – that employ magic in a manner that pits two opposing forces (good vs. bad) against each other. Harry Potter is successful in using this use of contrast as well. For instance, the story of Harry Potter’s survival from the hands of the evil Voldermort was recounted in the movie. In addition, his struggle to emerge victorious from the hands of a bully named Draco highlights the use of magic even more. The use of magic as a way to pit opposite forces makes the movie more interesting. Thus, use of contrast highlights even more the whole point of the movie, which is to entertain the audience with a fair amount of scenes involving magic. Some reviews about Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone however does not subscribe to the idea that the frequent display of magic in the movie makes it sufficiently interesting. According to a writer, the movie is entertaining because it reminds people that the art of movies is not just about portraying wars and strife but is about conveying the message of â€Å"peace and plenty† (Bradshaw). In ways more than one, I agree with this assessment. The movie is in fact entertaining because it does not leave the audience with a feeling of anger or anxiety which most action or suspense movies elicit. I feel though that since the primary audience of this Harry Potter consists in children and youngsters, the frequent use of magical powers still served the movie pretty well. Without an adequate portrayal of magic, I think the movie could have been a monumental blunder, especially when it is compared with the liveliness of its book counterpart. Conclusion I wish to end with the thought that, on account of the frequent use of magical powers throughout the film, the first Harry Potter movie must be called a success because it was able to entertain its primary target audience – the children. Nothing is more appealing for children than inciting their imagination; and most often, magic belongs to one of their many preoccupations. As a consequence, any film that is able to cater to children’s fascination over magic would end up being a sure hit. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone is one of them. Work Cited Bradshaw, P. â€Å"Harry Potter: A Special Report†. The Guardian, 16 November 2001. Retrieved 14 August 2008